De la educación a la orientación hacia la sociedad: hacia una profesionalización de la gestión de comunicación en Latinoamérica
Palabras clave:
profesionalización, relaciones públicas, América Latina, educación
Resumen
Esta investigación longitudinal cuantitativa analiza la evolución de la profesionalización de las relaciones públicas en América Latina utilizando datos procedentes de dos encuestas realizadas en los años 2009 y 2015. En total, 1.477 profesionales participaron en estos dos estudios, confirmando la idea de que la profesionalización es un proceso dinámico (Pieczka y L’Etang, 2001, 2006). Los resultados mostraron pequeñas pero significativas mejoras en cuatro indicadores: el estudio formal de las relaciones públicas en instituciones de educación superior, la existencia de unos principios éticos que hacen hincapié en el bienestar de la sociedad, el peso de las organizaciones profesionales, la disponibilidad de un cuerpo formal del conocimiento, y el acceso al empleo y la promoción. En general, se aprecia que los profesionales más jóvenes tienden a ser más críticos con respecto a los diferentes factores de profesionalización.
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Citas
Abdullah, Z., y Threadgold, T. (2008). Towards the professionalization of public relations in Malaysia: Perception management and strategy development. Public Relations Review, 34(3), 285-287.
Nobell, A. A., Yaguache, J. J., y Paladines, F. G. (2016). Public Relations in Ecuador: Exploratory and Descriptive Research About Career Development. In New Advances in Information Systems and Technologies (pp. 761-770). Springer, Cham.
Bissland, J.H, y Rentner, T.L. (1989). Public relations’ quest for professionalism: An empirical study. Public Relations Review, 15(3), 53.
Botan, C. (1992). International public relations: Critique and reformulation. Public Relations Review, 18, 149-159.
Bourne, C. D. (2015). Extending PR’s critical conversations with advertising and marketing. The Routledge Handbook of Critical Public Relations, 119.
Brooks, K. P., y Waymer, D. (2009). Public relations and strategic issues management challenges in Venezuela: A discourse analysis of Crystallex International Corporation in Las Cristinas. Public Relations Review, 35(1), 31-39.
Burns, E. (2007). Positioning a post-professional approach to studying professions. New Zealand Sociology, 22(1), 69-98.
Cameron, G. T., Sallot, L. M., y Lariscy, W. (1996). Developing standards of professional performance in public relations. Public Relations Review, 22(1), 43-61.
Chung, W., y Choi, J. (2012). Professionalism in public relations pedagogy: A comparative analysis of public relations curricula among the United States, the United Kingdom, and South Korea. Journalism y Mass Communication Educator, 67 (4), 375-391.
Commission on Public Relations Education. (2006). The Professional Bond: Public relations education and the practice. Retrieved from, http://www.commpred.org/_uploads/report2-executiveSummary.pdf
Coombs, W.T., Holladay, S., Hasenauer, G., y Signitzer, B. (1994). A comparative analysis of international public relations: Identification and interpretation of similarities and differences between professionalization in Austria, Norway, and the United States. Journal of Public Relations, 6(1), 23-39.
Culbertson, H.M. (1996). Introduction. In H.M. Culbertson y N. Chen (Eds). International public relations. A comparative analysis (pp. 1-13). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Culbertson, H.M., Jeffers, D.W., Stone, D.B., y Terrell, M. (1993). Social, political, and economic contexts in public relations: theory and cases. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Culbertson, H.M., y Jeffers, D.W. (1992). Social, political, and economic contexts: Key in educating true public relations professionals. Public Relations Review, 18, 53-65.
Curtin, P. A. (2012). Public relations and philosophy: Parsing paradigms. Public Relations Inquiry, 1(1), 31-47.
Cutlip, S. M., Center, A. H., y Broom, G. M. (1994). Effective Public Relations (7th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall
David, P. (2004). Extending symmetry: Toward a convergence of professionalism, practice, and pragmatics in public relations. Journal of Public Relations Research, 16(2), 185-211.
De Bussy, N. M., y Wolf, K. (2009). The state of Australian public relations: Professionalization and paradox. Public Relations Review, 35(4), 376-381.
Dolea, A. (2012). Status and Trends in Public Relations in Romania. EUPRERA Congress. Istanbul, Turkey, 20 – 22 September 2012.
Economy. (2015). Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development website. Retrieved from: http://www.oecd.org/economy/
Edwards, L. (2012). Defining the ‘object’ of public relations research: A new starting point. Public Relations Inquiry, 1(1), 7-30.
Evetts, J. (2014). The concept of professionalism: Professional work, professional practice and learning. In International Handbook of Research in Professional and Practice-based Learning (pp. 29-56). Springer Netherlands.
Freidson, E. (1988). Professional powers: A study of the institutionalization of formal knowledge. University of Chicago Press.
Freidson, E. (2001). Professionalism: The third logic. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Freidson, E. (1983). The theory of professions: State of the art. In R. Dingwall and O. Lewis (Eds.), The sociology of the profession: Lawyers, doctors and others (pp. 19-37). London: The Macmillan Press.
Gitter, A.G., y Jaspers, E. (1982). Are PR counselors trusted professionals? Public Relations Quarterly, 27, 28-31.
Gold, J., Rodgers, H., y Smith, V. (2002). The future of the professions: Are they up for it? Foresight, 4(2), 46-53.
Grunig, J. E. (2000). Collectivism, collaboration, and societal corporatism as core professional values in public relations. Journal of Public Relations Research. 12, 23-48.
Grunig, J. E., y Hunt, T. (1984). Managing public relations. New York: Holt, Rinehart, y Winston.
Hallahan, K.E. (1974). Professional association membership, professional socialization and the professional orientation of the public relations practitioner. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WS.
Jeffrey, L., y Brunton, M. (2012). Professional identity: How communication management practitioners identify with their industry. Public Relations Review, 38(1), 156-158.
Johansen, P. (2001). Professionalisation, building respectability, and the birth of the Canadian Public Relations Society. Journalism Studies, 2(1), 55-71
Judd, L.R. (1989). Credibility, public relations and social responsibility. Public Relations Review, 15(2), 34-40.
Krause, E. A. (1996). Death of the guilds: Professions, states, and the advance of capitalism, 1930 to the present. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Lages, C., y Simkin, L. (2003). The dynamics of public relations: key constructs and the drive for professionalism at the practitioner, consultancy and industry levels. European Journal of Marketing, 37(1/2), 298-328.
Larson, M. S., & Larson, M. S. (1979). The rise of professionalism: A sociological analysis (Vol. 233). University of California Press.
L'Etang, J., y Pieczka, M. (Eds.). (2006). Public relations: Critical debates and contemporary practice. Mahwah, NJ: Laurence Erlbaum Associates.
Li, C., Cropp, F., Sims, W., y Jin, Y. (2012). Perceived professional standards and roles of public relations in China: Through the lens of Chinese public relations practitioners. Public Relations Review, 38(5), 704-710.
McLeod, J.M., y Hawley, S.E., Jr. (1964). Professionalization among newsmen. Journalism Quarterly, 46, 529-539.
Meintjes, C., y Niemann-Struweg, I. (2009). The role of a professional body in professionalisation: The South African public relations case. PRism, 6, 1-14.
Mellado, C., y Barría, S. (2012). Development of professional roles in the practice of public relations in Chile. Public Relations Review, 38(3), 446-453.
Merkelsen, H. (2011). The double-edged sword of legitimacy in public relations. Journal of Communication Management, 15(2), 125-143.
Meyer, A.L., y Leonard, A. (2014). Are we there yet? En route to professionalism. Public Relations Review, 40(2), 375-386.
Molleda, J. C., Athaydes, A., y Hirsch, V. (2003). Public relations in Brazil: Practice and education in a South American context. Global Public Relations Handbook: Theory, Research, and Practice. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 356-77.
Molleda, J. C., Kochhar, S., y Moreno, A. (2012). An intertwined future: Exploring the relationship between the levels of professionalism and social roles of public relations practitioners. In M. W. Distaso (Ed.), Public Relations Society of America: Educators Academy (pp. 128-145). San Francisco: PRSA.
Molleda, J. C., y Moreno, Á. (2006). Transitional socioeconomic and political environments of public relations in Mexico. Public Relations Review, 32(2), 104-109.
Molleda, J.C., y Moreno, A. (2008). Balancing public relations with socioeconomic and political environments in transition: comparative, contextualized research of Colombia, México and Venezuela. Journalism and Mass Communication Monographs, 10(2), 116-174.
Molleda, J. C., Moreno, Á., Athaydes, A., y Suárez, A. M. (2012). Macroencuesta latinoamericana de comunicación y relaciones públicas. Organicom, 7(13), 118-141.
Moreno, A., Molleda, J. C., Athaydes, A., y Suárez, A. M. (2015). Latin American Communication Monitor 2014-2015. Excelencia en comunicación estratégica, trabajo en la era digital, social media y profesionalización. Resultados de una encuesta en 18 países. Recuperado de, http://latincommunicationmonitor.com.
Moreno, A., Molleda, J. C., Athaydes, A., y Suárez, A. M. (2017). Latin American Communication Monitor 2016-2017. Tendencias en comunicación estratégica: Big Data, automatización, engagement, influencers, coaching y competencias. Resultados de una encuesta en 17 países. Recuperado de, http://latincommunicationmonitor.com.
Molleda, J. C., y Suárez, A. M. (2005). Challenges in Colombia for public relations professionals: a qualitative assessment of the economic and political environments. Public Relations Review, 31(1), 21-29.
Morris, P. W., Crawford, L., Hodgson, D., Shepherd, M. M., & Thomas, J. (2006). Exploring the role of formal bodies of knowledge in defining a profession–The case of project management. International Journal of Project Management, 24(8), 710-721.
Nayman, O. McKee, B.K. y Lattimore, D.L. (1977). PR personnel and print journalists: A comparison of professionalism. Journalism Quarterly, 54(3) 492-497.
Nessmann, K. (1995). Public relations in Europe: A comparison with the United States. Public Relations Review. 21(2), 151-160
Niemann-Struweg, I., y Meintjes, C. (2008). The professionalism debate in South African public relations. Public Relations Review, 34(3), 224-229.
Park, J. (2003). Discrepancy between Korean government and corporate practitioners regarding professional standards in public relations: A co-orientation approach. Journal of Public Relations Research, 15(3), 249–275.
Parsons, P. (2008). Ethics in public relations: A guide to best practice. Kogan Page Publishers.
Pieczka, M., y L’Etang, J. (2006). Public relations and the question of professionalism. In J. L’Etang y M. Pieczka (Eds.), Public relations: Critical debates and contemporary practice (pp. 265-278). Mahwah, NJ: Laurence Erlbaum Associates.
Pieczka, M., y L'Etang, J. (2001). Public relations and the question of professionalism. In R. L. Heath (Ed.), Handbook of public relations (pp. 223-235). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Rentner, T.L., y Bissland, J.H. (1990). Job satisfaction and its correlates among public relations workers. Journalism Quarterly, 67(4), 950-955.
Reyes, J. A., y Sawyer, W. C. (2016). Latin American economic development. New York: Routledge.
Ryan, M. (1986). Public relations practitioners’ views of corporate social responsibility. Journalism Quarterly, 63(4), 740-762.
Sriramesh, K., y Verčič, D. (2009). The global public relations handbook; Theory, research, and practice (Expended and revised edition). New York: Routledge.
Taylor, M. (2001). International public relations; opportunities and challenges for the 21st century. In R.L. Heath (Ed.) y G. Vásquez (Contributing Ed.). Handbook of public relations (pp. 631-634). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
The Holmes Report (2016). Global PR Industry Hits $14bn In 2016 As Growth Slows To 5%. Retrieved from: http://www.holmesreport.com/research/article/global-pr-industry-hits-$14bn-in-2016-as-growth-slows-to-5
Van Ruler, B. (2005). Commentary: Professionals are from Venus, scholars are from Mars. Public Relations Review, 31(2), 159-173.
Wilensky, H. (1964) The Professionalisation of Everyone? American Journal of Sociology 70(2), 137–58.
Wright, D. (1979). Professionalism and social responsibility in public relations. Public Relations Review, 5(3), 20-33.
Yang, A., y Taylor, M. (2014). A global perspective on public relations professionalism: Mapping the structure of public relations associations’ international networks. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 91(3), 508-529.
Yang, A., y Taylor, M. (2013). The relationship between the professionalization of public relations, societal social capital and democracy: Evidence from a cross-national study. Public Relations Review, 39(4), 257-270.
Nobell, A. A., Yaguache, J. J., y Paladines, F. G. (2016). Public Relations in Ecuador: Exploratory and Descriptive Research About Career Development. In New Advances in Information Systems and Technologies (pp. 761-770). Springer, Cham.
Bissland, J.H, y Rentner, T.L. (1989). Public relations’ quest for professionalism: An empirical study. Public Relations Review, 15(3), 53.
Botan, C. (1992). International public relations: Critique and reformulation. Public Relations Review, 18, 149-159.
Bourne, C. D. (2015). Extending PR’s critical conversations with advertising and marketing. The Routledge Handbook of Critical Public Relations, 119.
Brooks, K. P., y Waymer, D. (2009). Public relations and strategic issues management challenges in Venezuela: A discourse analysis of Crystallex International Corporation in Las Cristinas. Public Relations Review, 35(1), 31-39.
Burns, E. (2007). Positioning a post-professional approach to studying professions. New Zealand Sociology, 22(1), 69-98.
Cameron, G. T., Sallot, L. M., y Lariscy, W. (1996). Developing standards of professional performance in public relations. Public Relations Review, 22(1), 43-61.
Chung, W., y Choi, J. (2012). Professionalism in public relations pedagogy: A comparative analysis of public relations curricula among the United States, the United Kingdom, and South Korea. Journalism y Mass Communication Educator, 67 (4), 375-391.
Commission on Public Relations Education. (2006). The Professional Bond: Public relations education and the practice. Retrieved from, http://www.commpred.org/_uploads/report2-executiveSummary.pdf
Coombs, W.T., Holladay, S., Hasenauer, G., y Signitzer, B. (1994). A comparative analysis of international public relations: Identification and interpretation of similarities and differences between professionalization in Austria, Norway, and the United States. Journal of Public Relations, 6(1), 23-39.
Culbertson, H.M. (1996). Introduction. In H.M. Culbertson y N. Chen (Eds). International public relations. A comparative analysis (pp. 1-13). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Culbertson, H.M., Jeffers, D.W., Stone, D.B., y Terrell, M. (1993). Social, political, and economic contexts in public relations: theory and cases. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Culbertson, H.M., y Jeffers, D.W. (1992). Social, political, and economic contexts: Key in educating true public relations professionals. Public Relations Review, 18, 53-65.
Curtin, P. A. (2012). Public relations and philosophy: Parsing paradigms. Public Relations Inquiry, 1(1), 31-47.
Cutlip, S. M., Center, A. H., y Broom, G. M. (1994). Effective Public Relations (7th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall
David, P. (2004). Extending symmetry: Toward a convergence of professionalism, practice, and pragmatics in public relations. Journal of Public Relations Research, 16(2), 185-211.
De Bussy, N. M., y Wolf, K. (2009). The state of Australian public relations: Professionalization and paradox. Public Relations Review, 35(4), 376-381.
Dolea, A. (2012). Status and Trends in Public Relations in Romania. EUPRERA Congress. Istanbul, Turkey, 20 – 22 September 2012.
Economy. (2015). Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development website. Retrieved from: http://www.oecd.org/economy/
Edwards, L. (2012). Defining the ‘object’ of public relations research: A new starting point. Public Relations Inquiry, 1(1), 7-30.
Evetts, J. (2014). The concept of professionalism: Professional work, professional practice and learning. In International Handbook of Research in Professional and Practice-based Learning (pp. 29-56). Springer Netherlands.
Freidson, E. (1988). Professional powers: A study of the institutionalization of formal knowledge. University of Chicago Press.
Freidson, E. (2001). Professionalism: The third logic. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Freidson, E. (1983). The theory of professions: State of the art. In R. Dingwall and O. Lewis (Eds.), The sociology of the profession: Lawyers, doctors and others (pp. 19-37). London: The Macmillan Press.
Gitter, A.G., y Jaspers, E. (1982). Are PR counselors trusted professionals? Public Relations Quarterly, 27, 28-31.
Gold, J., Rodgers, H., y Smith, V. (2002). The future of the professions: Are they up for it? Foresight, 4(2), 46-53.
Grunig, J. E. (2000). Collectivism, collaboration, and societal corporatism as core professional values in public relations. Journal of Public Relations Research. 12, 23-48.
Grunig, J. E., y Hunt, T. (1984). Managing public relations. New York: Holt, Rinehart, y Winston.
Hallahan, K.E. (1974). Professional association membership, professional socialization and the professional orientation of the public relations practitioner. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WS.
Jeffrey, L., y Brunton, M. (2012). Professional identity: How communication management practitioners identify with their industry. Public Relations Review, 38(1), 156-158.
Johansen, P. (2001). Professionalisation, building respectability, and the birth of the Canadian Public Relations Society. Journalism Studies, 2(1), 55-71
Judd, L.R. (1989). Credibility, public relations and social responsibility. Public Relations Review, 15(2), 34-40.
Krause, E. A. (1996). Death of the guilds: Professions, states, and the advance of capitalism, 1930 to the present. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Lages, C., y Simkin, L. (2003). The dynamics of public relations: key constructs and the drive for professionalism at the practitioner, consultancy and industry levels. European Journal of Marketing, 37(1/2), 298-328.
Larson, M. S., & Larson, M. S. (1979). The rise of professionalism: A sociological analysis (Vol. 233). University of California Press.
L'Etang, J., y Pieczka, M. (Eds.). (2006). Public relations: Critical debates and contemporary practice. Mahwah, NJ: Laurence Erlbaum Associates.
Li, C., Cropp, F., Sims, W., y Jin, Y. (2012). Perceived professional standards and roles of public relations in China: Through the lens of Chinese public relations practitioners. Public Relations Review, 38(5), 704-710.
McLeod, J.M., y Hawley, S.E., Jr. (1964). Professionalization among newsmen. Journalism Quarterly, 46, 529-539.
Meintjes, C., y Niemann-Struweg, I. (2009). The role of a professional body in professionalisation: The South African public relations case. PRism, 6, 1-14.
Mellado, C., y Barría, S. (2012). Development of professional roles in the practice of public relations in Chile. Public Relations Review, 38(3), 446-453.
Merkelsen, H. (2011). The double-edged sword of legitimacy in public relations. Journal of Communication Management, 15(2), 125-143.
Meyer, A.L., y Leonard, A. (2014). Are we there yet? En route to professionalism. Public Relations Review, 40(2), 375-386.
Molleda, J. C., Athaydes, A., y Hirsch, V. (2003). Public relations in Brazil: Practice and education in a South American context. Global Public Relations Handbook: Theory, Research, and Practice. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 356-77.
Molleda, J. C., Kochhar, S., y Moreno, A. (2012). An intertwined future: Exploring the relationship between the levels of professionalism and social roles of public relations practitioners. In M. W. Distaso (Ed.), Public Relations Society of America: Educators Academy (pp. 128-145). San Francisco: PRSA.
Molleda, J. C., y Moreno, Á. (2006). Transitional socioeconomic and political environments of public relations in Mexico. Public Relations Review, 32(2), 104-109.
Molleda, J.C., y Moreno, A. (2008). Balancing public relations with socioeconomic and political environments in transition: comparative, contextualized research of Colombia, México and Venezuela. Journalism and Mass Communication Monographs, 10(2), 116-174.
Molleda, J. C., Moreno, Á., Athaydes, A., y Suárez, A. M. (2012). Macroencuesta latinoamericana de comunicación y relaciones públicas. Organicom, 7(13), 118-141.
Moreno, A., Molleda, J. C., Athaydes, A., y Suárez, A. M. (2015). Latin American Communication Monitor 2014-2015. Excelencia en comunicación estratégica, trabajo en la era digital, social media y profesionalización. Resultados de una encuesta en 18 países. Recuperado de, http://latincommunicationmonitor.com.
Moreno, A., Molleda, J. C., Athaydes, A., y Suárez, A. M. (2017). Latin American Communication Monitor 2016-2017. Tendencias en comunicación estratégica: Big Data, automatización, engagement, influencers, coaching y competencias. Resultados de una encuesta en 17 países. Recuperado de, http://latincommunicationmonitor.com.
Molleda, J. C., y Suárez, A. M. (2005). Challenges in Colombia for public relations professionals: a qualitative assessment of the economic and political environments. Public Relations Review, 31(1), 21-29.
Morris, P. W., Crawford, L., Hodgson, D., Shepherd, M. M., & Thomas, J. (2006). Exploring the role of formal bodies of knowledge in defining a profession–The case of project management. International Journal of Project Management, 24(8), 710-721.
Nayman, O. McKee, B.K. y Lattimore, D.L. (1977). PR personnel and print journalists: A comparison of professionalism. Journalism Quarterly, 54(3) 492-497.
Nessmann, K. (1995). Public relations in Europe: A comparison with the United States. Public Relations Review. 21(2), 151-160
Niemann-Struweg, I., y Meintjes, C. (2008). The professionalism debate in South African public relations. Public Relations Review, 34(3), 224-229.
Park, J. (2003). Discrepancy between Korean government and corporate practitioners regarding professional standards in public relations: A co-orientation approach. Journal of Public Relations Research, 15(3), 249–275.
Parsons, P. (2008). Ethics in public relations: A guide to best practice. Kogan Page Publishers.
Pieczka, M., y L’Etang, J. (2006). Public relations and the question of professionalism. In J. L’Etang y M. Pieczka (Eds.), Public relations: Critical debates and contemporary practice (pp. 265-278). Mahwah, NJ: Laurence Erlbaum Associates.
Pieczka, M., y L'Etang, J. (2001). Public relations and the question of professionalism. In R. L. Heath (Ed.), Handbook of public relations (pp. 223-235). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Rentner, T.L., y Bissland, J.H. (1990). Job satisfaction and its correlates among public relations workers. Journalism Quarterly, 67(4), 950-955.
Reyes, J. A., y Sawyer, W. C. (2016). Latin American economic development. New York: Routledge.
Ryan, M. (1986). Public relations practitioners’ views of corporate social responsibility. Journalism Quarterly, 63(4), 740-762.
Sriramesh, K., y Verčič, D. (2009). The global public relations handbook; Theory, research, and practice (Expended and revised edition). New York: Routledge.
Taylor, M. (2001). International public relations; opportunities and challenges for the 21st century. In R.L. Heath (Ed.) y G. Vásquez (Contributing Ed.). Handbook of public relations (pp. 631-634). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
The Holmes Report (2016). Global PR Industry Hits $14bn In 2016 As Growth Slows To 5%. Retrieved from: http://www.holmesreport.com/research/article/global-pr-industry-hits-$14bn-in-2016-as-growth-slows-to-5
Van Ruler, B. (2005). Commentary: Professionals are from Venus, scholars are from Mars. Public Relations Review, 31(2), 159-173.
Wilensky, H. (1964) The Professionalisation of Everyone? American Journal of Sociology 70(2), 137–58.
Wright, D. (1979). Professionalism and social responsibility in public relations. Public Relations Review, 5(3), 20-33.
Yang, A., y Taylor, M. (2014). A global perspective on public relations professionalism: Mapping the structure of public relations associations’ international networks. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 91(3), 508-529.
Yang, A., y Taylor, M. (2013). The relationship between the professionalization of public relations, societal social capital and democracy: Evidence from a cross-national study. Public Relations Review, 39(4), 257-270.
Publicado
26-02-2019
Cómo citar
Navarro, C., & Moreno, Ángeles. (2019). De la educación a la orientación hacia la sociedad: hacia una profesionalización de la gestión de comunicación en Latinoamérica. ComHumanitas: Revista Científica De Comunicación, 9(2), 4-19. https://doi.org/10.31207/rch.v9i2.163
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